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Friday, December 27, 2019

The Application of Ethics in Progressive Taxation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2219 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Economics Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Taxation Essay Did you like this example? The Application of Ethics in Progressive Taxation For many centuries, societies have always judged individuals based on their social class. This social structure permits the society to place an individual or a group in a certain social class based on their economic status. The four social classes include; the upper class, the middle class, the working class, and lastly the poverty class. (Business Dictionary, Social Class) With income, comes tax that is given to the government based on the income earned annually. This leads us to questioning whether it is morally justifiable to tax wealthier individuals and families heavier while taxing the lower income individuals and families at a lower tax bracket. This process of taxation is considered to be â€Å"progressive taxation†. (Investopedia, Progressive Taxation) Progressive taxation is approved by some whereas it is criticized by others. This research paper will reflect upon these two perspectives and also reflect whether taxation aimed at redistributing wealth is morally reasonable. According to John K Roth’s definition of deontological theory in â€Å"Ethics†, he defines deontology to be the determination of whether an action is ethical or unethical according to its intention rather than the consequence of the action. Consequentialism is the determination of whether an action is ethically correct or incorrect through analyzing the consequence of the action rather than the intention. (Roth 315-316, 367-369) During this research paper, Roth’s ethical theories of consequentialism and deontology will be used in order to distinguish whether progressive taxation and the use of taxation to redistribute wealth can be identified as morally or unethically correct. According to the article â€Å"Understanding Attitudes toward Progressive Taxation†, it is believed that the progressive rate structure is one of the most desirable forms of taxation upon many phil osophers, economists, and tax policymakers. Those that believe in progressive taxation have the notion that the higher-income taxpayers should be liable to higher taxes than those of lower income. (Michael, Peggy, Cassie 166,168) According to â€Å"Progressive Taxes† by Joel B. Slemrod, in a progressive taxation scheme; â€Å"one’s tax structure is more progressive than another if its average tax rate rises more rapidly with income.† (Selmrod) According to the deontological theory, the intention of this progressive tax structure is to tax every individual or family according to their income and so it betters the life of many people within the society. The consequence of the tax policy will allow all individuals within the society to live their lives according to their needs. Wealthy individuals will still have enough income to live better than those of lower social classes, making it morally ethical because it’s consequences according to the consequential ist theory is saving many lives from poverty. An experiment was done on four-hundred and sixty underground students that were taking nine introductory courses and two additional tax classes at two large university institutions in different regions in the United States. The students were given different scenarios to each of the tax policies that are used to tax citizens in the United States and this included; regressive, flat, and lastly progressive taxation. (Michael, Peggy, Cassie 169-171) Regressive taxation is the contrary to progressive taxation, in which taxes the lower income people more than the wealthier individuals. (Investopedia, Regressive Tax) Flat tax is the application of the same tax rate among all social classes. (Investopedia, Flat Tax) The results of the experiment concluded that the students preferred progressive taxation over the other two forms of tax policies. Progressive taxation had the higher percentage compared to both flat and regressive taxes. Seventy- nine percent preferred progressive tax rates over flat, whereas seventy-six percent preferred progressive tax rates over regressive. (Michael, Peggy, Cassie 171) This demonstrates that among those that do have a basic knowledge of tax, they believe that progressive taxation is the fairest and the most ethical way of bringing among equality in the society. Those that support progressive taxation believe â€Å"that taxes should be assessed proportionally to income, and that upper-income taxpayers are avoiding paying a proportionate tax and therefore higher taxes on upper-income persons are needed.† (Michael, Peggy, Cassie 185-186) The upper-income taxpayers are avoiding paying their proportion of tax to the government and which leads to a negative intention of not willing to help the society as much. This can be viewed as unethical because deontologists would want the wealthy social classes to be contributing more to help the society attain happiness among the greatest numbe r of people according to Roth’s term of utilitarianism. (Roth 1531) The consequence of unwilling to pay their proportion of tax will lead the society to not progress as much as if they did pay their proportion of tax according to the progressive tax structure, and therefore making it unethical for those wealthy individuals to avoid paying their proportion of tax. Progressive taxation helps the government apply â€Å"Income redistribution† to better the society. Income redistribution is the series of actions which takes income from some individuals within the society and redistributes it to others. By collecting taxes, fees, subsidies and granted social benefits, it permits the government to enact this social benefit of income redistribution. Governments also collect taxes, to finance state institutions which benefit in the help to better facilitate the social and economic life of communities. Progressive taxation helps in the cause of Income Redistribution by taking more from the higher income people to help those individuals and families that are under poverty through allowances, subsidies, public goods and services. The practice of taxing the higher income individuals and families based on their expenses like luxury goods, help the means of redistributing income among the society to adjust the inequality among the individuals in the society. (Radu 228-229) According to deontology, the intention of income redistribution is to bring an equalitarian society by reducing the gap in income between the rich and the poor people. This transfer of income is looking to solve the social class inequality and therefore making it ethical. The consequence of income distribution reduces social tensions and creates equalitarian communities that are more united. It is also allowing the government to help those in economical need through cash transfers, food tickets, and social housing. (Radu, 229-232) This action according to consequentialist is ethical becaus e its consequences are bettering the lives of those that are living in poor conditions and allowing them to live a standard life rather than a harsh one. While some believe that progressive tax structure is morally ethical, there are others that do not believe this tax policy is best for the society. They believe progressive taxation is politically irresponsible because it allows majority of the federal income tax to be contributed by the top one percent of taxpayers in America that amounts to thirty-eight percent of federal income tax, whereas the bottom fifty percent of taxpayers pay a way lower portion of only two point seven percent of income taxes. According to deontologists, progressive taxation would be seen as unethical because the intention of the bottom fifty percent of taxpayers is to act selfishly and depend upon the wealthiest of the society to pay a major portion of federal income tax while only two point seven percent of incomes taxes are paid by them. It is estima ted that forty six point nine percent of workers did not contribute and pay the federal income tax during 2009. This results to a minority of taxpayers that are affected with the increase in tax rate and leads the majority of taxpayers to act rather selfishly and depend upon only the top wealthy people to pay their personal federal income taxes to bring change to the society. This political irresponsibility within this taxing policy, leads to an unjust treatment upon the wealthy people. (Hagopian 23) The consequence according to the consequentialist theory would also be unethical, because the consequence of forty six point nine percent of workers not paying their federal income taxes would lead to inequity among the minority because major portion of the income taxes is being provided by them. The second argument against progressive taxation is the fomenting dissension. In the United States system of government and all of Western nations, the issue and tension between the politica l system and the economic system exists. This tension among both political and economic sphere, leads to the act of disputing over welfare and tax policies. (Hagopian 24) The act of disputing over the welfare and tax policies can be viewed as ethical according to deontology, because the intention is to reduce the built-up pressure among the political and economic system in order to bring positive change. Those whom agree with income redistribution hold the fact that inequality stirs up disagreement and strife. Whereas those against progressive taxation, believe that dissension is still present when progressive tax laws are unfair towards those people whom are being taxed. Therefore, a progressive tax structure will lead to people revolting because of the inequity-based principle that is present in the tax policy according to those against it. (Hagopian 24) According to the consequentialist theory, the act of disputing against the progressive tax structure can be seen as ethical, bec ause it can lead to change within the system like resolving the issue of having more people pay their income taxes rather than having the wealthy social class contribute to mostly all the federal income tax. Acknowledging both sides of the argument towards progressive taxation, I believe that this form of taxation can be both morally ethical and unethical according to deontological and consequentialist theory by Roth, and which makes this taxing structure flawed. This can allow us to create a new doctrine of fairness that can be morally justifiable according to both consequentialists and deontologists. This doctrine is constructed on five basic principles. The first principle includes how the most equitable form of tax system is one that bases its policy on the value of benefits received. (Hagopian 24) According to deontologists, this principle is ethical because the intention to pay taxes to the government is to receive valuable benefits in return that benefit the greatest nu mber of people and brings happiness according to the utilitarianism theory. This policy will lead the government to base this principle on the benefits they provide to the society. The consequence therefore will be positive because the government will try to maximize the benefits they offer to the citizens from the tax they collect from the people. This makes this principle ethical in both terms. The second principle includes how income is perceived to be the â€Å"most equitable measure of the value of benefits† and also the ultimate well-being of an individual. Therefore, taxes should be taken proportionally to the benefits received in return from the government. (Hagopian 24) Based on the deontology theory, the intention of this principle is to bring equality among the society by having the government provide equal benefits from those taxes collected proportionally from each individual, and thus making it ethical. The consequences of the principle will allow each indivi dual to have a good sum of their income for daily living expenses due to the advantage of proportional taxing and can also advantage in the governmental benefits that is provided from the tax collected. This principle rejects the notion of per-capita tax system and applies a tax system of proportion instead. (Hagopian 24-25) The third principle of this doctrine is implying that only â€Å"clear income† should be taxed. By clear income, it means that those under the poverty level are not required to pay taxes because their below the level of subsistence and therefore they could barely pay their living expenses. Whereas those that are above the level of subsistence should pay taxes because they are more than capable in living their lives with adequate surplus of income after all their daily living expenses. (Hagopian 25) Deontologists would believe that this principle is morally justifiable because the intention of this principle is to bring an equalitarian society and help those that are incapable to live by not having them pay taxes. Those that are beyond the level of subsistence should pay their taxes to permit the government to have some form of financing to help the society as a whole. The consequence of this principle is moral because it allows a greater number of people to live a fair life with an adequate sum of income. The fourth principle is how progressive taxation on income is inequitable when it comes to work effort. In an equal playing field, those that have a high-value aptitude generally make more income than those of low-value aptitude. Among each tier of aptitude, includes a â€Å"mini-society† that differentiates income only through the work-effort they put in to making money. Hence, an individual that puts a work effort above the median in his/her tier aptitude will make more than someone that puts a work effort below the median. Although the individual whom is implementing more work effort is making more money, he/she mus t pay more taxes than the person who puts less work effort in the tier of aptitude based on the progressive tax structure. This unfair system according to consequentialist will lead to a great number of people of making less after-tax income per hour than someone else in their tier of aptitude because they worked harder to earn more income. Progressive taxation in this sense is seen as unethical because of its inequity. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Application of Ethics in Progressive Taxation" essay for you Create order

Thursday, December 19, 2019

Logistics and Supply Chain Management - 1186 Words

1a.What logistics management? b. State the six rights in an effective logistics management system. Logistics is defined as process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from point of origin to the point of consumption for the purpose conforming to customer requirement, which also includes the inbound, outbound, internal, and external movements and return of materials for environmental purposes. Logistics Management is the governance of supply chain functions. Logistics management activities typically include inbound and outbound transportation management, fleet management, warehousing, materials handling, order fulfillment, logistics network design,†¦show more content†¦The goods must also be delivered at the right time that is the goods must be provided as and when it’s needed. For example for a time bound or seasonal product like daily graphic, rain coat, the product will be of no use to the customer when it is supplied late. Lastly, the goods must be provided at the right cost. Thus the cost of acquiring the product should be what the consumer will be sure of achieving value for his money. The six rights should be rightly blended to ensure better customer satisfaction. ASSIGNMENT INDEX NUMBER: WBLSC/080003 CLASS: LEVEL 400 WEEKEND COURSE: LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT QUESTION: Define retail logistics and explain its functions. SOLUTION Logistics is the function of making goods and other resources physically available for use as and when required. This generally includes two basic activity of moving or transporting these resources and storing them at different location till required for use or further transportation. Retail logistics is the organized process of managing the flow of merchandise from the source of supply to the customer. Gibson G. Vedamani. Retail logistics performs numerous functions and among these are as follows; Inbound and outbound transportation. Retail logistics conduct physical movement of goods from the wholesalers point to their premises andShow MoreRelatedLogistics And Supply Chain Management1033 Words   |  5 PagesLogistics and supply chain management is an important aspect of a firm’s strategy for the business to achieve success by creating value throughout the logistics and supply chain. The research paper will outline the concepts that are involved in creating the logistics and supply management framework. The logistics and supply chain management strategies will drive success for the company towards fulfilling and supporting customer needs, procurement and manufacturing operations of the firm. 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Nielsen-de Vries Lecturers Logistics Room D2.173 osenj@hr.nl / vriad@hr.nl Rotterdam, 00 januari 2007 6-1 Corporate strategy Business strategy Operations Strategy Mission Objectives (cost, quality, flexibility, delivery) Functional strategies in marketing, finance, engineering, human resources, and information systems Strategic Decisions (process, quality system, capacity, andRead MoreSupply Chain And Logistics Management1295 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction What is supply chain and logistics? Supply chain management involves various activities from acquisition of raw material to distribution of final goods while logistics involves only transportation of goods. Supply chain plays integral role in business process without effective supply chain management an organization cannot meet its demands on time. So it plays crucial role in business activities. Following activities are involved in supply chain management 1. Procurement 2. ProductionRead MoreLogistics And Supply Chain Management1379 Words   |  6 Pagestechnology and the consulting firms that service them, they are scrambling to hire people with Supply Chain expertise, but these experts are hard to come by. Supply Chain Management has moved from a necessary evil to a core competency at companies across industries. I am applying for admission to the Master of Logistics and Supply Chain Management because I want a career in the Supply Chain Management. In particular, I am interested in factors that affect the competitive performance of a businessRead MoreSupply Chain Management And Logistics Essay1877 Words   |  8 PagesSupply Chain management and logistics are an extremely important functions of an organization. In this research paper, we will be discussing an aspect of supply chain and logistics that I am interested in, how both are related and different, key activities in supply chain and logistics, and the ethics and social responsibility in both supply chain and logistics management. Logistics is a vital component of supply chain management. Both involve the planning, carrying out and management of goodsRead MoreLogistics and Supply Chain Management1168 Words   |  5 PagesTopic: Do the terms, ‘logistics management’ and ‘supply chain management’ have the same meaning in operations and why logistics management might be of strategic importance to a manufacturing or service organisation. During last two decades, the importance of logistics has been noticed around the world. In global markets, the effects and further developments of logistics and supply chain management for corporate success has increased significantly that result in a large amount of companies haveRead MoreLogistics Management And Supply Chain Management1125 Words   |  5 Pages Aero Marine Logistics Tomer Dicturel California InterContinental University Aero Marine Logistics Introduction During last two decades, the importance of logistics has been noticed around the world. In global markets, the effects and further developments of logistics and supply chain management for corporate success has increased significantly that result in a large amount of companies have taken actual benefits in logistics, such as reducing costs, enhancing customers satisfactionRead MoreLogistic and Supply Chain Management3353 Words   |  14 PagesRMIT INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY VIETNAM Introduction to Logistic and Supply Chain Management Individual Case Study NAME: Tran Thi Kim Mai ID Number: s3231137 LECTURE: JAMIE CALBETO-Group 10 Bachelor of Commerce Program ASSIGNMENT COVER PAGE Your assessment will not be accepted unless all fields below are completed Subject Code: OMGT2085 Subject Name: Introduction to Logistics Supply Chain Management Location where you study: RMIT Vietnam – SGS Title of Assignment: Read MoreLogistics Management And Supply Chain Management1171 Words   |  5 PagesLogistics and Supply Chain Management Topic: Do the terms, ‘logistics management’ and ‘supply chain management’ have the same meaning in operations and why logistics management might be of strategic importance to a manufacturing or service organisation. During last two decades, the importance of logistics has been noticed around the world. In global markets, the effects and further developments of logistics and supply chain management for corporate success has increased significantly that result

Wednesday, December 11, 2019

Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve. Answer: Introduction: According to Collins (2005), organizations can become great when their leader is at level 5, a chief executive officer (CEO) who is capable of blending genuine personal humility with an intense professional will. Collins (2005) acknowledge that level 5 is the highest hierarchy of leadership capabilities in any organization. These kinds of leaders can drive their respective companies from great to greatness. However, the other levels of leadership (highly capable individual, contributing team member, competent manager, and effective leader) can produce results but not up to level 5, where we have the executive, to elevate organizations from mediocrity to sustainable excellence (Collins, 2005). As such, for companies to survive the current competitive business environment, their leaders must stand out as well as possess the strong professional will and personal humility. At level 5, executives demonstrate an unwavering decision to do everything possible with an aim of producing the bes t long-term results irrespective of the challenges that may come their way (Collins, 2006). Moreover, they exercise personal humility by demonstrating a compelling modesty, while shunning public adulation, and never boastful of their achievement. Applying the concepts of "level 5 leaders" Westpac Bank Australia CEO, Brian Hartzer (Westpac Group, 2018), ideally fits the cadre of a level 5 leader. According to Smith (2017), Westpac Group (2015), and Upton (2015), Brian has been the face of transformation at Westpac Bank. He has led various innovative projects that have sustained the bank's performance to date. Westpac Group (2015) acknowledge that various strategies (service leadership, digital transformation, performance discipline, new growth highways, and workforce revolution) implemented by the management through Brian has inspired growth and success of the organization. Furthermore, Upton (2015) and Smith (2017) describes Westpac Bank CEO to possess the strong professional will and personal humility. As such, the CEO is a level 5 leader. Despite Brian Hartzer being a transformational and innovative leader, there are challenges that every successful organization face, to which, he is not an exemption. Such challenges include; severe limits of time, unpredictability, an expectation of change, the personification of the company, and visibility. Other additional challenges are; obtaining the right information, limits of power, reporting to the board of directors, and broader scope of operations. Therefore, this report will highlight the evidence of each challenge in respect to Brian Hartzer as the CEO of Westpac Bank Australia. Porter and Nohria (2010) acknowledge that CEO's are at the epitome of decision making in any organization. They exercise ultimate power and have the responsibility of making critical decisions. Nevertheless and Nohria (2010) observes that despite CEO's being the epitome of decision making, they do not make all decisions. Interestingly, they report to the board of directors for decisions made within the company. As such, Brian Hartzer has the responsibility of reporting to the board of Westpac Group on the progress of the company. If anything goes wrong, it is the responsibility of the CEO to respond to such unfortunate occurrences to the board. Therefore, reporting to the board put CEO's at cross-roads on responding to miscalculated decisions made by junior employees. It poses a challenge to their competence especially if the decision hurt the company's finances. As stated by Westpac Group (2018), Westpac is the oldest company in Australia and the leading banking institution in New Zealand. With such breadth of operations, Westpac Group has broader operations that may pose a challenge to the management. Notably, Westpac Group (2017) annual report shows that Westpac Group engages in various business activities like consumer banking, business banking, ATM alliance, Westpac Institutional Bank, Westpac New Zealand, BT financial group, Pacific banking, Westpac Migrant Banking, and Banking alliance for women plus sixteen subsidiaries. Such a broad base of operations present accountability challenges to the CEO. Making decisions and overlooking the entire operations requires professional will and personal humility (Collins, 2005). Lacking such level 5 leadership qualities can lead to the collapse of a company. Another challenge CEOs face is the limits of power. Lafley (2009) observe that CEOs are answerable to the board of directors. Every important company decision should seek the permission of the board. Moreover, the board of directors evaluates and accept the proposal or reject. In this scenario, CEOs are limited to major organizational decisions they make. As such, Brian Hartzer, being a CEO, he is affected by such limits of their power. When there are issues or problems to be sorted in any organization, getting the right information is key to finding lasting solutions. However, CEOs of large organizations like Westpac Group may find it challenging to obtain the right information from a subsidiary. For example, obtaining the right information from Hastings Forestry Investments Limited (Westpac Group, 2017), a subsidiary of Westpac Group, may be a challenge if the management of the subsidiary is engaging in unethical activities. Therefore, CEOs may obtain manipulated information from various managers who are not level 5 leaders which may harm the company. CEOs often face visibility challenges in day to day running of their organizations. In essence, leaders can only fix what they can see and manage only what they are aware of (Hassell, 2017). Lacking visibility can hinder the performance of a company. Moreover, visibility enables CEOs to give other managers the confidence to let employees do their jobs. However, granting such freedom may cost the company if employees operate outside the vision of the company. And when employees make mistakes, the management are the ones held responsible, and as such, answerable to the board. Hassell (2017) observes that managers who lack visibility of their companies often tend to personify the company. They develop a tendency to want to do everything and pressuring managers to do what they want irrespective of the laid down performance charter. In a bid to perform and seek validation from the board of directors, some CEOs control their middle-level managers. Collins (2005) recommends that competent managers organize people and resources to enhance the efficient and effective pursuit of the organizational objective which some CEOs overstep to make it a personal business. Upon commencing their duties, CEOs are faced with the expectation of high performance within a short period of time. The time horizon put by the owner or board of directors pressure CEOs thus presenting performance challenges to them. They are required and expected to bring major results and changes to the table starting week one. It is only level 5 leaders with a strong personal will to accommodate such challenges (Collins, 2005). Porter and Nohria (2010) acknowledge that CEOs are expected to bring change to organizations they lead. However, the time frame to inspire that change may be short to achieve required outcome. At times, the company may be having limited resources and yet they are required to achieve goals of their companies. Customers, on the other hand, do expect change from new CEOs which may not be achievable to their expectations. Another challenge that CEOs face is the unpredictability of the market. Stiff competition, technological changes, and unpredictable consumer demand may lead to loses which complicate the lives of CEOs. Post (2017) observes that marketplace competition, market oversaturation, and virtual workplace are increasingly taking over some businesses. Westpac Group CEO has to think ahead to avert any possibility of being found unaware. Therefore, this calls for constant research to avoid a collapse of any nature (Porter Nohria, 2010). According to Porter and Nohria (2010), CEOs have the responsibility to spearhead the vision and mission of their companies. Like Brian Hartzer, more responsibility on their way present severe limits of time. His attention is required within the headquarters and other subsidiaries. Moreover, he has to deliver on the organizational mandate. As such, CEOs like Brian may work late into the night to just complete daily responsibilities. This is a real challenge that faces CEOs. Moreover, leaders at level 5 can build enduring greatness by combining professional will plus personal humility to succeed. References Collins, J. (2005). Level 5 Leadership: the Triumph of Humility.On leadership, 10. Collins, J. (2006). Level 5 leadership: The triumph of humility and fierce resolve.Managing Innovation and Change,234. Hassell, D. (2017). To succeed in business, managers need more visibility. Retrieved from https://www.15five.com/blog/succeed-business-managers-need-visibility/ Lafley, A.G. (2009). What only the CEO can do. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2009/05/what-only-the-ceo-can-do Porter, M.E. Nohria, N. (2010). What is Leadership? The CEOs Role in Large, Complex Organizations. Post, J. (2017). The 10 biggest challenges for CEOs in 2017. Retrieved from https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/3625-new-year-challenges.html Smith, P. (2017). Brian Hartzer backs tech to be driving force as Westpac enters third century. Financial Review. Retrieved from https://www.afr.com/technology/enterprise-it/brian- hartzer-backs-tech-to-be-driving-force-as-westpac-enters-its-third-century-20170330- gva3ek Upton, L. (2015). What makes new Westpac CEO Brian Hartzer tick. Ruby Connection. Retrieved from https://rubyconnection.com.au/insights/ruby-picks/westpac-ceo-brian- hartzer-exclusive.aspx Westpac Group, (2015). Brian Hartzer, Westpac Chief Executive Officer, Westpac Group. Third Century Banking. Trans-Tasman Business Circle. Sydney. Retrieved from https://www.westpac.com.au/docs/pdf/aw/media/key-note- speeches/Brian_Hartzer,_Third_Century_Banking,_Sydney.pdf Westpac Group, (2017). Annual report. Proudly supporting Australia for 200 years. Retrieved from https://www.westpac.com.au/content/dam/public/wbc/documents/pdf/aw/ic/2017_Westpa c_Annual_Report_Web_ready__Bookmarked.pdf Westpac Group, (2018). The Executive Team. Retrieved from https://www.westpac.com.au/about-westpac/westpac-group/executive-team/

Tuesday, December 3, 2019

The Different Types of Cells free essay sample

There are three major parts of a cell the nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane, if these are stained appropriately, they can be easily seen under a light microscope. The nucleus (in many cell types) is the innermost and is enclosed by a thin membrane. The nucleus contains the genetic material which directs the cells function. The cytoplasm includes specialized structures called cytoplasmic organelles that are suspended in a liquid called cytosol. The organelles divide the labor in a cell by partitioning off certain areas or providing specific functions (dismantling debris, extracting energy from nutrients, or packaging secretions). They are not still, some move within the cell and others that stay in one place are the sites of ongoing biochemical activity. The cell membrane (also called a plasma membrane) contains the cytoplasm that surrounds the nucleus. This is the outermost limits of a cell, it is an actively functioning part of the cell. We will write a custom essay sample on The Different Types of Cells or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many important metabolic reactions take place on the surface, and it harbors molecules that enable cells to communicate and interact. 4. What does selectively permeable membrane mean? Selectively permeable membrane is a membrane that controls the entrance and exit of substances, allowing some in while preventing others from entering. 5. What are some functions of cell membrane proteins? Many trans membrane proteins bind to specific incoming molecules, such as hormones, triggering responses from within the cell. Certain compact and granular proteins span the cell membrane and provide routes for small molecules and ions to cross the otherwise impermeable phosphobilipid bilayer. Some of these form â€Å"pores† that admit water. In nerve cells, selective channels control the movement of sodium and potassium ions. Peripherial proteins may be enzymes and many are part of signal transduction pathways. Some function as cellular adhesion molecules that enable certain cells to touch or bind. Peripherial proteins that have carbohydrates attached form glycoproteins that help recognize and bind from the cells surface. 6. Fill in the following table (LOOK AT PAGE 99 AND REDO? ) OrganelleStructureFunction Cell membrane Membrane mainly composed of protein and lipid molecules Maintains integrity of the cell, controls the passage of materials in and out of the cell, and provides signal transduction Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum Complex organelle composed of membrane-bound flattened sacs, elongated canals, and fluid-filled vesicles. As the ER nears the cell membrane, it widens and lacks the ribosomes, and becomes the Smooth ER. Smooth ER contains enzymes that are important in synthesizing lipids, absorbing fats from the digestive tract, and breaking down drugs. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum Complex organelle composed of membrane-bound flattened sacs, elongated canals, and fluid-filled vesicles. The outer membranous surface of some Endoplasmic reticulum is studded with many ribosomes that give it a studded view. This is the Rough ER. The ribosomes of the rough ER are sites of protein synthesis. Ribosome Particles composed of connected, membrane-mound sacs, canals, and vesicles. Synthesize proteins Golgi Apparatus A stack of about a six or so flattened, membranous sacs called cisternae. Packages and modifies protein molecules for transport and secretion Mitochondria Elongated, fluid-filled sacs. Two layers, an outer and inner layer. A typical cell has about 1,700 mitochondria. It physically resembles that of bacteria Release energy from food molecules and convert the energy into a useable form. Lysosome Can be difficult to identify because their shapes vary, but they often appear as tiny, membranous sacs. Contains enzymes capable of digesting worn cellular parts or substances that enter cells. Peroxisome Membranous sacs that resemble lysomes in size and shape. Located in all human cells but are most abundant in cells of the liver and kidneys. Contain enzymes called peroxidases, Contains enzymes called peroxidases, important in the breakdown of many organic molecules. Microfilaments and microtubules Microfilaments are tiny rods of protein actin that form mesh works or bundles and provide certain cellular movements. Microtubles are long, slender tubes with diameters two or three times greater than those of microfilaments. They are composed of globular protein tibulim, are usually rigid, which helps maintain the shape of the cell. In muscle cells microfilaments constitute myofibrils, which shorten or contract these cells. In other cells, microfilaments associated with the inner surface of the cell membrane aid cell motility. In cilia and flagella, microtuble interactions provide movement. They also move organelles and other cellular structures. Centrosome Located in the cytoplasm near the nucleus. It is nonmembranous and consists of two cylinders (centrioles), built of tubelike structures called microtubles organized as nine groups of three. They also form parts of hairlike cellular projections called cilia and flagella. During cell division, the centrioles migrate to either side of the nucleus, where they form spindle fibers that pull on and and distribute chromosomes, which carry DNA information to the newly forming cells. Cilia Is a hairlike structure that attaches just beneath the cell membrane. Cilia dot cells in precise patterns. Beat rythmatically to propel fluids across the cellular surface. Flagella Much longer then a cilium and a cell usually only has one. The tail of a sperm cell is the only known flagellum in humans and generates swimming movements. Vesicles Membranous sacs, they vary in size and contents. Contains substances that recently entered the cell, provides attachment for ribosomes, and sythnesizes lipids. Nuclear envelope Has an inner and outer lipid bilayer membrane that encloses the nucleus. The two membranes have a small space between them, but are joined at places that surround openings called nuclear pores. The nuclear pores allow certain dissolved substances to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Nucleolus Small dense body largely composed of RNA and protein. It has no surrounding membrane and is formed in specialized regions of certain chromosomes. A cell may have more than one nucleolus. This is the only site of ribosome production. Once they are formed, they migrate through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm. Chromatin Consists of the cells 46 chromosomes each of which contains DNA wound around many proteins (like a very long thread wound around multiple spools. The position of the chromatin in the nucleus is not random, but reflects which genes are active. When cell division begins, chromatin fibers coil so tightly, this varies along the chromosomes, depending upon which genes are being accessed for their information. 7. What kinds of substances most readily diffuse through a cell membrane? The cell membrane is a selective barrier that controls which substances enter and leave the cell. Lipid-soluble substances, such as oxygen, carbon-dioxide, steroids, and general aesthetics, freely cross the cell membrane by simple diffusion. Explain the difference between diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion- Also called simple diffusion is the tendency of atoms, molecules, and ions in a liquid or air solution to move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration, thus becoming more evenly distributed, or more diffuse. Diffusion can only occur if the cell membrane is permeable to that substance and a concentration gradient exists such that the substance is at a higher concentration on one side of the membrane or the other. Facilitated diffusion- Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of small solutes that are not lipid-soluble, such as ions of sodium,potassium, and chloride, through specific protein channels in the membrane. This type of movement follows the concentration gradient and depends membrane proteins. Osmosis- Osmosis is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane into a compartment containing solute that cannot cross the same membrane. The mechanism of osmosis is complex, but it part involves diffusion of water. Cell membranes are generally permeable to water, so water equilibrium by osmosis throughout the body, and the concentration of water ans solutes everywhere in the intracellular and extracellular fluids is essentially the same. p102 9. Define concentration gradient and equilibrium. The net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentrations. The difference in concentrations is called a concentration gradient, and atoms, molecules, and ions are said to diffuse down a concentration gradient. With time, the concentration of a given substance becomes uniform, this is diffusional equilibrium. However, diffusional equilibrium does not normally occur in organisms. Instead, they tend to reach a physiological steady state, where concentrations of diffusing substances are unequal but stable. p100 10. What is the difference between isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions? Also describe what happens to a red blood cell in each of those solutions. Isotonic is any solution that has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids, such as . 9% NaCl. In red blood cells, in an isotonic solution, equal volumes of water enter and leave the red blood cells, so they maintain their characteristic  sizes and shapes. Hypertonic solutions are solutions that have a higher osmotic pressure than body fluids. IF cells are put into a hypertonic solution, there will be a net movement of water by osmosis out of the cells and the cells will shrink. This is the case with red blood cells, in a hypertonic solution, more water leaves than enters the red blood cells, so they in turn, shrink. Cells in a hypotonic solution, which has a lower osmotic pressure than body fluids, gain water by osmosis and swell. Red blood cells in a hypotonic solution, more water enters than leaves, so the cells swell and may burst. This is called hemolysis. p102 11. Explain how filtration occurs in the body. Filtration is the body’s way of forcing molecules through membranes. It is commonly used to separate solids from water. In the body, tissue fluid forms when water and dissolved substances are forced out through the thin, porous walls of blood capillaries, but larger particles such as blood protein molecules are left inside. 12. In active transport, molecules move from regions of ____Lower_____concentrations to regions of ____Higher_____________concentrations. 13. Compare active transport and facilitated diffusion. How are they similar and how do they differ? In active transport, molecules move from regions of lower concentrations to regions of higher concentrations (against the concentration gradient). The opposite is true of facilitated diffusion, here, the molecules move from regions of higher concentrations to regions of lower concentrations (with the concentration gradient). The two are similar in that they both use carrier molecules within cell membranes. The carrier proteins that transport substances from regions of lower concentrations to areas of higher concentrations are called â€Å"pumps. † 14. How does a cell maintain unequal concentrations of ions on opposite sides of a cell membrane? A cell maintains unequal concentrations of ions on opposite sides of a cell membrane by active transport. Sodium ions, for example can diffuse slowly through cell membranes, yet the concentration of these ions is many times greater outside the cells than inside the cells. This is because sodium ions are continually moved through the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration (inside) to regions of higher concentration (outside). 15. What is the difference between pinocytosis and phagocystosis? Pintocytosis is when cells take in tiny droplets of liquids from their surroundings. When this happens, a small portion of the cell membrane indents (invaginates). The open end of the tubelike part that forms, then seals of, producing a small vesicle, this tiny fluid filled sac then detaches from the surface and moves into cytoplasm. It remains separated for a short time, eventually breaking down and releasing the contents into the cytoplasm. The cell uses the pintocytosis as a way to take in things that otherwise would be too large to enter. Phagocystosis is similar to pintocytosis but it takes in solids rather than liquids. Some white blood cells are called phagocytes because they can take in solid particles such as bacteria and cellular debris. The newly formed vesicle that brings the solid into the cell, usually attaches to a lysome, the lysomal digestive enzymes decompose the contents and may then diffuse contents into the cytoplasm, where they may be used as raw materials in metabolic processes. Phagocytosis is an important line of defense against infection. p105 16. Describe receptor-mediated endocytosis. Receptor-mediated endocytosis moves very specific types of particles into the cell. This process uses protein molecules that extend through the cell membrane and are exposed on the outer surface. These proteins are receptors to which specific molecules from the surrounding fluids can bind and selectively and enter the cell (ligands). Receptor-mediated endocytosis is important because it allows cells with the appropriate receptors to remove and process specific types of substances from their surroundings, even when these substances are present in very low concentrations. p105 17. What does transcytosis accomplish? Transcytosis combines endocytosis and exocytosis to selectively and rapidly transport a substance or particle from one end of a cell to another. It moves substances across barriers formed by tightly connected cells. This process occurs in normal physiology and in disease. Transcytosis enables the healthy immune system to monitor pathogens in the small intestine, protecting against some forms of food poisoning. 107 18. Why is the precise division of the genetic material during mitosis so important? Precise division of the genetic material during mitosis is so important to ensure each new cell receives a complete copy of the genetic information. The chromosomes were duplicated in interphase, but it is in interphase that the chromosome sets are evenly distributed between the two forming cells. P109 19. Describe the events that occur during mitosis. (You can include a diagram too) Prophase- chromatin condenses into chromosomes; centrioles move to opposite sides of cytoplasm; nuclear membrane and nucleus disperse; microtubles assemble and associate with centrioles and chromatids of chromosomes. Metaphase- spindle fibers from the centrioles attach to the centromeres of each chromosome; chromosomes align midway between the centrioles. Anaphase- centromeres separate, and chromatids of the chromosomes separate spindle fibers shorten and pull these new individual chromosomes toward centrioles. Telophase- chromosomes elongate and form chromatin threads; nuclear membranes form around each chromosome set; nucleoli form; microtubles break down. 20. What factors control the number of times and the rate at which cells divide? The DNA at the tips of chromosomes, called telemeters had a mitotic clock. When this tip wears down, the signal tells the cell to cease dividing. Some factors include; severe psychological or emotional stress, inside cells; waxing and waning levels of proteins called kinases and cyclins, cell size (the ration between the surface area the cell membrane provides and the cell volume). Volume increases faster than does surface area. Some external controls include hormones and growth factors. Space availability is another external factor, healthy cells do not divide if they are surrounded by other cells. Control of cell division is crucial to health. Too infrequently and embryo could not develop, a child could not grow, and wounds would not heal. Too frequent division, produce abnormal growth, or neoplasm, which may form a disorganized mass called a tumor. p112 21. What is the difference between a benign and malignant tumor? A benign tumor remains in place like a lump, eventually interfering with the function of healthy tissue. A malignant tumor or cancerous, tumor looks different it is invasive, extending into surrounding tissue. A growing malignant tumor may resemble a crab with ourreaching claws. Cancer cells, if not stopped, eventually reach the circulation and spread, or metastasize, to other sites. p112 22. What are 2 ways that genes cause cancer? There are two ways genes cause cancer, oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Oncogenes are abnormal variants of genes that normally control the cell cycle, but are over expressed, increasing cell division. Tumor suppressor genes normally hold mitosis in check. When these are removed or inactivated, this lifts cell division, and uncontrolled cell division leads to cancer cells. p112 23. What is the difference between a stem cell and progenitor cell? A stem cell divides mitotically to yield either two daughter cells like itself, or one daughter cell that is a stem cell and one that is particularly specialized. It can divide into other cells and also can differentiate as many different cell types. A progenitor cell is a partly specialized cell that is the daughter of a stem cell but is intermediate between a stem cell and a fully differentiated cell. It is said to be â€Å"committed† because its daughter cells can become any of a restricted number of cell types. All of the differentiated cell types in a human body can be traced back through lineages of progenitor and stem cells. p113 24. Define totipotent , pluripotent and apotosis. (I believe this is spelled APOPTOSIS) Totipotent means that they can give rise to every cell type. Pluripotent means that their daughter cells can follow any of several pathways, but not all of them. These include stem cells that present later in development, as well as progenitor cells. Apoptosis is a form of cell death also called â€Å"programmed cell death: because it is a normal part of development. Apoptosis sculps organs from tissues that naturally overgrow, in the fetus, apoptosis carves away webbing between fingers and roes, prunes extra brain cells, and preserves only those immune system cells that recognize the body’s surface. 25. How do cells differentiate? Cells come from preexisting cells, by the process of mitosis and cytokinesis. Cell division explains how a fertilized egg develops into an individual consisting of trillions of cells, of at least 260 specialized types. This process of specialization is called differentiation. Cells specialize or differentiate along cell lineage pathways from stem cells or progenitor cells.